The Prophet now drew up his army, and he passed in front of each man to give them good heart and to straighten the ranks, bearing an arrow in his hand.

"Stand in line, O Sawad", he said to one of the Helpers who was too far forward, and he gave him a slight prick in the belly with his arrow. "O Messenger of God, thou hast hurt me," said Sawad, "and God hath sent thee with truth and justice, so give me my requital." "Take it," said the Prophet, laying bare his own belly and handing him the arrow whereupon Sawad stooped and imprinted a kiss where it was his due to place a point of the shaft.

"What made thee do this?" said the Prophet. And he answered: "O Messenger of God, we are now faced with what thou seest; and I desire that at my last moment with thee-if so it be- my skin should touch thy skin;" and the Prophet prayed for him and blessed him.


Quraysh had now begun to advance. Seen across the undulating dunes, the Meccan army appeared to be much smaller than it was. But the Prophet was fully aware of their true numbers and of the great disparity between the two hosts, and he now returned to the shelter with Abu Bakr and prayed for the help which God had promised him.

A light slumber came upon him, and when he woke he said: "Be of good cheer, Abu Bakr; the help of God hath come to thee. Here is Gabriel and in his hand is the rein of a horse which he is leading, and he is armed for war."

In the history of the Arabs many a battle had been averted at the last minute, even when the two forces were drawn up face to face. But the Prophet was now certain that the battle would take place, and that this formidable array was the one of the two parties that he had been promised.

The vultures also knew that carnage was imminent and they were already in wait to feed on the carcasses of the slain, some wheeling overhead and others perched on the rocky slopes in the rear of either army. It was, moreover, clear from the movements of Quraysh that they were preparing to attack. They were already near and now halted within easy reach of the cistern which the Muslims had made. It seemed likely that their first move would be to take possession of it.

Aswad of Makhzum strode ahead of the others, clearly intending to drink. Hamzah went out to meet him and struck him a blow which severed one of his legs below the knee, and a second blow which killed him.

Then Utbah, still smarting from the taunts of Abu Jahl, stepped from the ranks and gave the challenge for single combat; and for the further honour of the family of his brother Shaybah and his son Walid stepped forward on either side of him.

The challenge was immediately accepted by the Awf of the Najjar clan of Khazraj, who had been one of the first six of the Helpers to pledge themselves to the Prophet; and with Awf stepped forward his brother Mu'awwidh. It was their quarter in Medina that Qaswa had chosen as the ultimate halt of the Hijrah. The third to accept the challenge was 'Abd Allah ibn Rawahah. Who had defied his leader Ibn Ubayy in speaking words of welcome and comfort to the Prophet.

"Who are ye?" said the challengers. When the men answered, 'Utbah said "Ye are noble and our peers, yet we naught to do with you. Our challenge is against none but men of our own tribe." Then the herald of Quraysh shouted: "O Muhammad, send forth against us our peers from our own tribe." The Prophet had not intended anything else, but the eagerness of the Helpers had forestalled him. Now he turned to his own family. Since it was above all for them to initiate the battle. The challengers were two men of mature age and one youth.

"Arise, O 'Ubaydah," he said. "Arise, O Hamzah. Arise, O Ali." 'Ubaydah was the oldest and most experienced man in the army, a grandson of Muttalib, and he faced Utbah while Hamzah faced Shaybah and Ali faced Walid.

The combats were not long: Shaybah and Walid were soon lying dead on the ground, while Hamzah and Ali were unhurt: but at the moment Ubaydah struck Utbah to the ground he received from him a sweep of the sword that severed one of his legs. It was a triple contest, three against three, so Hamzah and Ali turned their swords on 'Utbah, and Hamzah gave him the death blow. Then they carried their wounded cousin back to their camp. He had lost a mortal quantity of blood, and the marrow was oozing from the stump of his leg. He had only one thought. "Am I not a martyr, O Messenger of God?" he said as the Prophet approached him. " Indeed thou are" he answered.

The tense stillness between the two hosts was now broken by the sound of an arrow from Quraysh, and a freedman of Umar feel to the ground, fatally wounded.

A second arrow pierced the throat of Harithah, a youth of Khazraj, as he was drinking at the cistern. The Prophet now exhorted his men saying: "By Him in whose hand is the soul of Muhammad, no man will be slain this day, fighting against them in steadfast hope of his reward, advancing not retreating, but God shall straightaway enter him into Paradise."

His words were passed on by those who heard them to those who were out of earshot. Umayr of the Salimah clan of Khazraj had a handful of dates which he was eating. " Wonder of wonders!" he exclaimed. "Is there naught between me and my entering Paradise, but that these men should slay me?", and he flung away the dates and put his hand to his sword and, in eager readiness for the word of command.

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The circumstances in the early days in Madina

With the arrival of God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, in Madina, the struggle between Islam and unbelief entered a new phase. In Makka, the Prophet devoted himself almost exclusively to expounding the basic principles of Islamic faith and to the moral and spiritual training of his Companions. After the Emigration, however, people belonging to different tribes and regions of ‘Arabia, who had embraced Islam, began to concentrate in Madina. Although the Muslims held only a tiny piece of the land, the whole of Arabia, under the leadership of the Quraysh, moved against them, bent upon their extermination.

In these circumstances, the very survival, let alone the success, of this small group of believers depended upon several factors. First, that they should propagate their beliefs with the utmost conviction in order to convert others. Second, that they should demonstrate the falsity of their opponents’ standpoint so convincingly that there could remain no justifiable ground for any intelligent person to entertain any doubt on the question. Third, that they as the followers of the Prophet should not become disheartened because they had been driven out of their homes and were faced, through the hostility and opposition of the whole country, with economic stringency, hunger, and constant insecurity and danger, but that they should confront the situation with patience and fortitude. Fourth, that they should be able to find a way to retake all their wealth and goods usurped by the Makkans during Emigration. Fifth, that they should be prepared to resist with both courage and the force of arms the violent assault by which the enemy intended to frustrate their movement, and that in this resistance they should not heed the enemy’s superiority in either numbers or material resources.

In addition to the threats coming from Makka and its allied tribes, there were, in Madina itself, three tribes of the Jews. As explained earlier, the Jews held the control of the economic life of the city. Although they had been waiting for the emergence of a Prophet, they severely opposed God’s Messenger because he did not appear from among them, among the descendants of the Prophet Isaac. They felt constrained to sign a pact with God’s Messenger but, entertaining feelings of hatred against him, they never refrained from conspiracies to exterminate Islam. For example, among their poets, Ka’b ibn Ashraf composed poems to satirize God’s Messenger and instigate his enemies against him.

In Madina, another element of enmity against Islam also began to emerge in the form of hypocrisy. One group of hypocrites consisted of those who had no faith in Islam but had entered the ranks of the Muslim community merely in order to create mischief. Another group of hypocrites, conscious of the political dominance of the Muslims in Madina, considered it advantageous to gain acceptance as fellow-Muslims. At the same time, they maintained contacts with the enemies of Islam so that they could secure all the advantages of friendship with the two opposite camps and thus remain safe from any hostilities. There was still another group of hypocrites - those who were in a state of ambivalence and indecision between Islam and Ignorance but who had accepted Islam because the majority of their tribe or family had done so. The final group consisted of those who, although they believed Islam to be true, found it difficult to forsake their inherited way of life, their superstitions, their customs and usages, and to discipline themselves to observe the moral restraints and fulfill the obligations prescribed by Islam.

How many took part?

Allah, the Glorified and the Exalted, says in the Noble Qur'an:

And Allah certainly helped you at Badr when you were weak. So be in reverential awe of Allah that perhaps you may be thankful (3:123).

The Battle of Badr is the most important battle in all human history as it firmly established Islam as a universal religion for the whole of humanity till the end of time. It took place in 2 After Hijri, [624 Common Era] The beloved Beloved Prophet Muhammad, Sallallahu 'alayhi wa Sallam, together with 313 of his Companions and angels sent by Allah to help them, defeated about 1000 better armed polytheists of Makkah.

The Companions of Prophet Muhammad, Sallallahu 'alayhi wa Sallam, who took part are the Muhajirin and the Ansar. The Muhajirin are the Muslims from Makkah who had migrated to Madina. The Ansar are the Muslims of Madina who helped them settle in Madina.

The two main tribes of Madina were Aws and Khazraj. The Ansar (Helpers) of Madina, are thus classified either as Awsi (belonging to the Aws tribe) or Khazraji (belonging to the Khazraj tribe).

Fourteen Sahaba (Companions) were martyred in the Battle of Badr. Their names are shown below. Al-Fatiha!

Harithah ibn Suraqa ash-Shahid al-Khazraji, Rady Allahu 'Anhu

Dhu'sh-shimilayn ibn 'Abd 'Amr ash-Shahid al-Muhajiri, Rady Allahu 'Anhu

Rafi' ibn al-Mu'alli ash-Shahid al-Khazraji, Rady Allahu 'Anhu

Sa'd ibn Khaythama ash-Shahid al-Awsi, Rady Allahu 'Anhu

Safwan ibn Wahb ash-Shahid al-Muhajiri, Rady Allahu 'Anhu 

Aqil ibn al-Bukayr ash-Shahid al-Muhajiri, Rady Allahu 'Anhu

Ubaydah ibn al-Harith ash-Shahid al-Muhajiri, Rady Allahu 'Anhu 

Umayr ibn al-Humam ash-Shahid al-Khazraji, Rady Allahu 'Anhu 

Umayr ibn Abi Waqqas ash-Shahid al-Muhajiri, Rady Allahu 'Anhu 

Awf ibn al-Harith ash-Shahid al-Khazraji, Rady Allahu 'Anhu 

Mubash-shir ibn 'Abdu'l Mundhir ash-Shahid al-Awsi, Rady Allahu 'Anhu

Mu'awwidh ibn al-Harith ash-Shahid al-Khazraji, Rady Allahu 'Anhu

Mihja' ibn Salih ash-Shahid al-Muhajiri, Rady Allahu 'Anhu

Yazid ibn al-Harith ibn Fushum ash-Shahid al-Khazraji, Rady Allahu 'Anhu

According to the Ahadith in Jami' us-Sahih of Imam al-Bukhari (Vol. 5, p. 201, Hadith Numbers 292-294), the number of warriors in the Battle of Badr were more than 310 of whom more than 60 were the Muhajirin (from Makkah) and more than 249 were the Ansar (from Madina). According to scholars of sirah (history, biography), 313 companions took part in the Battle of Badr of whom 82 were the Muhajirin and 231 were the Ansar (61 Awsi and 170 Khazraji). Wallahu A'lam (Allah Knows Best).

The number of Companions that are normally listed in Classics of Muslim Spirituality are more than those who actually took part because there are some Companions who were considered by the Beloved Prophet Muhammad Sallallahu 'alayhi wa Sallam to be Ahl Badr (The Warriors of Badr) even though they were not actually present because they were sent by him on special assignments elsewhere at that time.

Another reason why the list is greater than 313 is that in some instances, Muslim historians and the 'ulama (the learned) are not absolutely sure from the evidence they have collected whether a particular Companion was actually present at Badr or not. So, perhaps they have decided to err in including the name rather than to err in leaving it out. For that reason perhaps, Imam ibn Kathir lists 321, Imam al-Barzanji lists 368, Mawlana Khalid al-Baghdadi lists 366, Shaykh 'Abdur Rahman Chohravi mentions 357, Shaykh Mustafa Rushdi ad-Dimishqi has 356 while Shaykh 'AbdurRahman al-Azhariyy has 385.

ref : Siddiq Noormuhammad 1423/2002
Toronto, Canada

In such severe circumstances, God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, dispatched, as military measures, expeditions into the heart of the desert. In dispatching them, he had several aims, some of which are as follows:

Unbelievers tried to extinguish the Light of God ‘with their mouths’ but, although they were averse, God willed to perfect His Light (al-Saff, 61.8). So, God’s Messenger desired to demonstrate that it was impossible for unbelievers to exterminate Islam, and to show that Islam was a reality that could not be ignored.

Makka enjoyed a central position in the heart of the Arabian peninsula. It was the most formidable power of the time in Arabia and all the other tribes felt some sort of adherence to it. By dispatching military expeditions to neighboring areas, God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, also desired to demonstrate the power of Islam and to break the dominance of the Quraysh in Arabia.

During human history, the concept of ‘might is right’ has usually been a norm. This has been so because ‘right’ has usually not had enough power to hold the dominance of the world. The case was the same fourteen centuries ago in Arabia. Since the Quraysh enjoyed might and wealth, the neighboring tribes obeyed them. However, Islam came to make right might, and, in order to demonstrate this and to break the pressure of the Makkan polytheists on neighboring tribes to prevent them from embracing Islam, God’s Messenger dispatched military expeditions through the desert one after the other.

The mission of God’s Messenger was not restricted to a fixed period, nor to one nation only; rather, he was sent as a mercy for all the worlds. So, he was charged to communicate the Message of God as far as the remotest corners of the world. However, since he began his mission in Arabia, he had, certainly, to know the conditions surrounding him. These expeditions were, therefore, vanguards to be acquainted with those conditions and pave the way for the preaching of Islam in the peninsula.

One of the most effective ways of crushing the enemy is to stir them to unpremeditated, premature movements and thereby to always have the initiative. God’s Messenger was surely informed of the contacts the Quraysh established with ‘Adbullah ibn Ubayy ibn Salul, the head of the hypocrites in Madina, to frustrate him in his mission, and he was alert to their possible attacks on Madina. Meanwhile a military force of the Quraysh was able to penetrate as far as the suburbs of Madina and, after a plunder, returned to Makka. So, by dispatching military expeditions, God’s Messenger, upon him be peace, also desired to agitate the Quraysh to an unprepared, unpremeditated action against Madina to nip their plots in the bud.

The Quraysh lived on international trade. They sent trade caravans to Syria and to the Yemen. So, it was a vital importance for them that their trade routes should be absolutely secure. However, thanks to the situation of Madina, God’s Messenger was able to threaten their trade and, therefore, while strengthening his position in Madina on the one hand, he was, on the other, dispatching military expeditions to paralyze the hopes and plans of the Quraysh to deal him any blow.

Islam guarantees security of life and property. Its commandments aim to guarantee the security of life, the security of property, the security of, in addition to physical health, mental and spiritual health, the security of chastity, and the security of belief. Therefore, it strictly prohibits murder, theft, robbery and plundering, and also usurpation and interest or usury and gambling, alcohol, every kind of illicit sexual intercourse, anarchy and propagation of atheism. The Arabic original of ‘belief’ is iman and means giving security. Therefore amu’min (believer) is the one who never cheats and from whose tongue and hand all people are in utmost security. He never lies, never breaks his word, and never breaches a trust. Also, he never conceives of earning his life by stealing or other un-Islamic ways like usurpation and interest-involving transactions. He is convinced that the one who has killed a man is as if he killed the whole of humankind.

When God’s Messenger was raised as a Prophet, there was in Arabia no security, neither of life or property, nor of chastity or health, nor of belief, nor indeed in the rest of the world. However, he had to establish absolute security in every aspect of life. Once, he had said to Adiy ibn Khatam:

A day will come when a woman will travel, riding in a litter, from Hira to Makka and fear nothing except God and wolves.1

By dispatching military expeditions through the desert, God’s Messenger also aimed to establish security therein and wanted to show to everyone, friend and foe, that security was not possible but by Islam.

The first military expedition sent after the Emigration was toward Sif al-Bahr. When Hamza, the commander of the expedition, reached Sif al-Bahr, a trade caravan of the Quraysh was returning from Damascus. The Quraysh had usurped all the possessions of the Emigrant Muslims left in Makka, and used them in trade. In order to threaten their trade, and weaken them economically, God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, desired to make a show of power in the desert. No clash took place in this first confrontion with the Quraysh, but the desert tribes witnessing the incident showed an inclination to acknowledge a second power in the peninsula besides the Quraysh.

This first expedition was shortly followed by the second sent under the command of ‘Ubayda ibn Harith. With the same purpose as in the first expedition, ‘Ubayda went as far as Rabigh, a valley on the route to Makka. The Muslim expedition of sixty cavalrymen met there with a force of the Quraysh consisting of two hundred armed men. An exchange of arrows took place between the parties; in the end, fearing a possible defeat, the Makkan troops withdrew towards Makka.2

Military expeditions followed one another, some of them commanded by God’s Messenger himself, upon him be peace and blessings. In two of the expeditions he commanded, he went to Abwa and Buwat respectively and aimed to threaten the trade caravans of the Quraysh and intimidate them.3 In the former, he also had the purpose of signing a treaty with Banu Damra. According to the conditions of the treaty, neither of the sides would take up arms against the other, and the tribe of Banu Damra would not help any aggressive force against the Prophet, upon him be peace and blessings.

Shortly before the Battle of Badr, God’s Messenger sent an expedition of about ten persons under the command of ‘Adbullah ibn Jakhsh to Nakhla, a place between Makka and Ta’if, a few miles away from Makka. He ordered them to follow the movements of the Quraysh and gather information about their plans. While they were staying in Nakhla, a trade caravan of the Quraysh coming from Ta’if halted there. Something happened unexpectedly and the Muslims killed one of the Makkans and captured the rest except one, and their belongings, and took them to Madina. They did this at a time when the month of Rajab was approaching its end and Sha’ban about to begin. It was, therefore, doubtful whether the event took place in Rajab, one of the sacred months, or not. But the Quraysh, and the Jews who were secretly in league with them, as well as the hypocrites, made great use of this as a weapon in their propaganda campaign against the Muslims. They claimed that the Muslims shed blood in a sacred month, when bloodshed is forbidden.

Since the incident had taken place without his approval, God’s Messenger expressly pointed out to those who had participated in the campaign that he had not ordered them to fight. Also the other Muslims reproached them for doing something not commanded. However, the verses revealed consoled them on account of their purity of intention with hope for the mercy of God:

They question you concerning the holy month, and fighting in it. Say: ‘Fighting in it is a heinous thing, but to bar from God’s way, and unbelief in Him, and denying entry into the Holy Mosque, and to expel its people from it - that is more heinous in God’s sight; and persecution is more heinous than killing.’ They will not cease to fight with you till they turn you from your religion, if they are able; and whoever of you turns from his religion and dies unbelieving - their works have failed in this world and the next; those are the inhabitants of the Fire; therein they shall dwell forever. But the believers, and those who emigrate and struggle in God’s way - those have hope of God’s Mercy; and God is All-Forgiving, All-Compassionate. (al-Baqara, 2.217-8) 4

The verses aimed to answer the objections raised by the Quraysh and the Jews and hypocrites. The essence of the matter is that fighting during the holy months is an evil act. However, those people who had continually subjected the believers to indescribable wrong for thirteen years merely because they believed in the One God could have no right and justification to make such an objection. They had not only driven the Muslims from their homes, they had closed to them the way to the Holy Mosque, a bar which had not been imposed by anyone during the course of some two thousand years. With this record of mischief and misconduct it was not for them to raise such an outcry at a small incident, and especially so when the incident had taken place without the approval of the Prophet, upon him be peace and blessings.

A general evaluation of the expeditions

Until the Battle of Badr, which took place two years after the Emigration, God’s Messenger arranged around twenty military expeditions. By these expeditions he seized control of the desert and paralyzed the morale of the Makkan polytheists. Second, most of the desert tribes began to acknowledge the power of Islam and take the side of God’s Messenger. In none of the expeditions, except one, did the Muslim warriors shed blood, nor did they wound anyone. They neither plundered the caravans nor usurped something from desert peoples. They showed in practice that Islam is the guarantee of security.

God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, formed an intelligence network and was informed of everything happening in the desert and in Makka itself. So sophisticated a system did he establish that probably none of his Companions in Madina even knew that, for example, his uncle, ‘Abbas, was left in Makka as a member of his intelligence service. When he set out on a military campaign, no one knew, up to a certain point, his real intention and where they were going.5 Besides, he used couriers in communication with his soldiers fighting at the front. A courier carried the news to some certain point, where he trusted it to another one waiting to carry it to the other station. With this system, he got the news of his expeditions in the shortest time possible.

All the expeditions he dispatched until the Battle of Badr consisted of the Emigrants exclusively. For first of all, the Quraysh were at war with the Emigrants. They did not want them to be sheltered in Madina. Besides, those who were driven from their homes with everything they had left behind were the Emigrants. Second, the Helpers had sworn allegiance to God’s Messenger so that it was expected that the Helpers should perceive by themselves the necessity of taking part in any military action in the way of God.

The military genius of God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, showed itself also in his choice of commanders of the expeditions. His uncle, Hamza, was appointed the commander of the first military expedition. Besides his courage and strength, Hamza was a man of sound judgment, good opinion and high administrative ability. In addition, until the whole of his community appropriated his ideas and adopted his opinions, God’s Messenger chose to practice them in the persons of his relatives. Since the military dimension of his mission showed itself for the first time in Madina, God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, was to put his own relatives on the front line until everyone was wholly accustomed to it. It should, however, also be noted that all of the commanders he chose were able and eminent generals and highly qualified for the job. They were, in addition, very upright persons wholly devoted to the cause of Islam.

Hamza was martyred in Uhud after having killed more than twenty soldiers of the enemy. ‘Ubayda ibn Harith was martyred because of the wounds he received in the Battle of Badr. Before his martyrdom, he asked God’s Messenger: ‘O God’s Messenger, I did not die in fighting at the front. Am I regarded then as having died a martyr?’6

Hamza was the uncle of the Prophet; ‘Ubayda his cousin. The commander of the expedition he sent to Nakhla, ‘Adbullah ibn Jakhsh, was the son of his paternal aunt. In the second stage of the Battle of Uhud, he fought heroically. He came across Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas and told him: ‘Come; you pray and I’ll invoke ‘Amen’ for your prayer. Let me pray, and you invoke ‘Amen’ for my prayer.’ Sa‘d prayed: ‘O God, make me encounter one of the strongest soldiers of the enemy, and let me overcome him!’ Ibn Jakhsh invoked ‘Amen’ for this prayer, and then himself prayed: ‘O God, let me encounter one of the strongest soldiers of the enemy. After I wounded him severely, let him kill me, and cut my ears and nose and lips so that I shall come to Your Presence bleeding profusely. You ask me, “‘Abd Allah, where are your ears, nose and lips?” and I’ll answer You: “O God, I was ashamed to come to Your Presence with my members with which I had sinned, and I sacrificed them while fighting in the way of Your Beloved One.”‘ When the battle ended, ‘Adbullah was found lying with his ears, nose and lips cut off and his abdomen lanced.7

Lastly, by sending military expeditions one after the other, God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, agitated the Quraysh to an unpremeditated action, and, as will be explained below, on the pretext of securing the return of their trade caravan, they formed an army of one thousand and left Makka for Badr some ninety miles to the south of Madina.

THE BATTLE OF BADR

The Quraysh always felt their trade route to Syria under serious threat because of the Muslim concentration in Madina. They first threatened the Madinans, in a letter addressed to 'Adbullah ibn Ubayy ibn Salul, to kill their males and enslave their females unless they expelled God’s Messenger from Madina. The Prophet, upon him be peace and blessings, put a timely end to the mischief which Ibn Ubayy inclined to cause. Besides, when Sa‘d ibn Mu’adh went to Makka to perform minor pilgrimage (Umrah), he was stopped at the entrance of the Ka’ba and prevented from performing circumambulation. Also, the Makkans quite regularly sent invading parties. In such circumstances, the Muslims were left no choice but to gain and consolidate control over that trade route in order to force the Quraysh and other tribes unfriendly to the Muslims to reconsider their hostile policy. It was also time for the Prophet, upon him be peace and blessings, to give a lesson to the Quraysh and the tribes allied to them, as well as the Jews and hypocrites in Madina, that it was impossible for them to bar the spread of Islam, let alone eradicate it from the hearts of people and the surface of the earth. The front or pact of polytheism and unbelief would undoubtedly surrender to the light of Islam.

It was, at last, at the beginning of 624, two years after the Hijra that a large caravan of the Quraysh, escorted by no more than 40 security guards en route to Makka from Syria, arrived at a place within reach of the Muslims. Fearing that the Muslims would attack their caravan, Abu Sufyan, the leader of the caravan, rushed a messenger to Makka and sought help and reinforcements.

This caused an uproar through Makka. The leading chiefs of the Quraysh decided to wage war on the Prophet, upon him be peace and blessings, and about 1000 fighters moved out of Makka with much pomp and show. They had decided to deal a crushing blow to the rising power of the Muslims. They also wanted, as always, to terrorize the neighbouring tribes so as to ensure the safety of their trading caravans in the future.

God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, who always kept himself abreast of developments which had any bearing on his mission, realized that if an effective step was not taken right then, the preaching of Islam might suffer a blow from which it might be very difficult for it to recover. Had the Quraysh taken the initiative and launched an attack on Madina, it might have put an end to the existence of the small Muslim community in that town. Even if the Quraysh restricted themselves to taking their caravan to Makka safely by dint of their military strength, this would have adversely affected the political and military prestige of the Muslims. Once their prestige had been undermined, their lives, property and honour would have been jeopardized.

Having decided to use the resources available to him, the Prophet, upon him be peace and blessings, left Madina. Although he may have been intent upon a decisive battle with the Quraysh, most of the Muslims desired to capture the caravan. In order to inform his Companions of the situation, the Prophet gathered them and told them that the trading caravan of the Quraysh was in the north whereas the invading Quraysh army was in the south and moving towards Madina. He also informed them that God had promised the Muslims that they would be able to seize any of the two parties they wished (al-Anfal, 8.7) Now it was for them to make the choice whether they wished to attack the trading caravan or the approaching army. Aware of the Prophet’s intention, Miqdad ibn ‘Amr, one of the Emigrants, replied as follows:

O' Messenger of God! Proceed as God has commanded you to. We are with you wherever you go, even as far as Bark al-Ghimad. We shall not say as the Children of Israel said to Moses: ‘Go forth, you and your Lord, and fight, We shall remain here sitting!’ We rather say: ‘Go forth, you and your Lord, and fight, and we shall fight on your side as long as the eyelid of any one of us keeps moving.’1

Until the Battle of Badr, God’s Messenger had not sought help from the Helpers in military expeditions. This was the first occasion when the Helpers would prove their commitment to support Islam. Without addressing them directly, God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, again put the same two alternatives before his audience. Realizing that God’s Messenger aimed to ascertain the views of the Helpers on the question, Sa‘d ibn Mu‘adh rose and spoke as follows:

O Messenger of God! I think your question is directed to the Helpers. We have believed in you, affirmed the veracity of your claim to be the Messenger of God, and borne witness to the truth of your teachings. We took the oath of allegiance to you that we would hear and obey you. O Messenger of God! Do as you wish! By the One Who has sent you with the truth, if you were to take us to the sea and plunge into it, none of us should remain behind. So take us along to the battlefield with God’s blessings.2

The decision was given in favor of fighting. This was also the decree of God:

God promised you that one of the two hosts would be yours, and you wished that the one with no power should be yours. But God willed to establish the truth through His words and to annihilate the unbelievers to the last remnant, that He might prove the truth to be true and falsify falsehood, even if the sinful are averse. (al-Anfal, 8.7-8)

The Makkan army consisted of 1000 fighters, including 600 soldiers in coats of mail, and 200 cavalry. They were accompanied by singers and dancers. Whenever the army halted, dancing and drinking parties were held. Also the army arrogantly vaunted its military power and numerical strength before the tribes and localities which fell on the way, and boasted of its invincibility.3 What was even worse was that they were not fighting for any lofty ideal. They aimed to defeat the forces of belief, truth, justice and good morals.

Against the force of the Makkan army, the Muslim army was made up of 313 fighters. Of these, 86 were Emigrants and the rest, the Helpers. Such was the scarcity of resources that only two or three Muslims had horses. The number of camels was no more than 70 so that three or four persons took turns on each camel. God’s Messenger himself took turns with two persons. When they asked him to ride the camel to exclude themselves from the turns, God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, answered: You are no better in strength than me. Concerning the reward, I am not in less need of it than you.4

The Muslim soldiers were fully devoted to the cause of Islam and were fired with the zeal to sacrifice their lives for their cause. In order to accomplish what He had already decreed, God made the Makkan army appear as small in number in the dream God’s Messenger had, just as He made the number of the Muslims appear smaller in the eyes of the Makkans (al-Anfal, 8.44).

The two armies finally encountered each other at Badr. The Makkan army outnumbered the Muslims by three to one. Moreover, the Muslims were scantily equipped. However, they would fight for the most sublime of causes, to establish God’s religion based on belief, good morals and justice. They were deeply convinced of the truth of this cause and accordingly ready to sacrifice their lives. They had reached the battlefield earlier than their opponents and been positioned around the wells. Apart from that, the heavy downpour which had come the previous night, was to the advantage of the Muslims. It had provided them with an abundant water supply which they quickly stored in large reservoirs. Rain had also compacted the loose sand in the upper part of the valley where they had pitched their tents. This helped the Muslims plant their feet firmly and facilitated their movement. But in the lower part of the valley, where the Quraysh army was stationed, the ground had turned marshy. In addition to all those Divine blessings, God brought on them drowsiness and gave them a feeling of peace and security (al-Anfal, 8.11).

God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, positioned his army in the upper part of the valley overlooking the whole of the battlefield, and divided them into three parts, one centre and two flanks. The central force consisted of the leading figures among the Emigrants and Helpers, who were foremost in devotion to God’s Messenger. Mus‘ab ibn ‘Umayr was carrying the standard of God’s Messenger. Mus‘ab belonged to one of the richest families of Makka. He had accepted Islam as an adolescent. He was very handsome, and when he used to go out, before his conversion, in silken clothes, the Makkan girls used to stare at him from the windows of their houses. However, after he embraced Islam, he became a whole-hearted follower of God’s Messenger. He sacrificed whatever he had in the way of God and finally died a martyr at the Battle of Uhud, during which he was again the standard-bearer of the Prophet, upon him be peace and blessings. When he lost his right arm, he took the standard in his left hand, and when a blow of an enemy sword took it away too, he was left with a ‘head’ to protect God’s Messenger, before whom he was finally martyred.5

The flanks were commanded by ‘Ali and Sa‘d ibn Mu‘adh. ‘Ali was famous for his courage and deep devotion to God’s Messenger. He was only nine or ten years old when he answered God’s Messenger, ‘I will help you’, when the Messenger gathered his kinsmen to call them to Islam at the outset of his mission and asked them: ‘Who among you will help me in this affair?’6Again, on the night of the Prophet’s Emigration, he slept on the Prophet’s bed in order that God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, might be able to leave Makka in safety.7Those who surrounded the house of the Prophet had thought that it was God’s Messenger who was sleeping in the bed and waited until daybreak. By the time they rushed into the house only to find ‘Ali in the Prophet’s bed, God’s Messenger had already reached the Cave of Thawr outside Makka. ‘Ali was a man wholly dedicated to the cause of God.

God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, had not neglected to take all the necessary precautions and perfect all the preparations for the war. He had mobilized all the resources available to him and chosen his best and most qualified men as commanders. He had stationed his army at the upper part of the valley and pitched his tent at a place from where he would be able to see the whole of the battlefield and have all his commands conveyed to his soldiers instantaneously. And, as the final prerequisite, for the desired result, he outstretched his arms and prayed with great earnestness and humility:

O God! Here are the Quraysh who in their vainglory seek to deny and cry lies against Your Messenger. O God! Support us with the help You promised me. O God! Were this small group of Muslims to perish, none in the whole earth would remain to worship You.8

After the prayer, he threw a handful of dust at the enemy saying: May their faces be scorched!9

The Battle of Badr was a severe test for all the Muslims. They would either gain the victory or be martyred. They were not to flee the battlefield. Although they were not forbidden to retreat in orderly fashion under strong pressure from the enemy provided the retreat was resorted to as a stratagem of war - for example, seeking reinforcements or regrouping with another party in the rear (al-Anfal, 8.15) - any disorderly flight because of cowardice and defeatism was strictly forbidden. That kind of retreat takes place because the deserter holds his life dearer than his cause, and such cowardice has been characterized as one of the major deadly sins.

The battle began. In the first frontline of the Quraysh were ‘Utba ibn Rabi‘a and his brother, Shayba, and his son, Walid. They challenged the Muslims to single combat. Three young men of the Helpers went forward against them. ‘We will not fight with the farmers and spherherds of Madina,’ ‘Utba shouted out of an arrogance which would cause their perishing. This was, in fact, what God’s Messenger expected. He ordered ‘Ali, Hamza and ‘Ubayda ibn Harith to go forth for single combat. Hamza, may God be pleased with him, advanced against ‘Utba and killed him. ‘Ali killed Walid with two blows. ‘Ubayda, who was old, marched against Shayba. They exchanged blows, and the sharp edge of Shayba’s sword struck ‘Ubayda’s knee and cut it. However Hamza and ‘Ali rescued him from Shayba. They killed Shayba and carried ‘Ubayda away.10

The Quraysh were shocked at the beginning of the war. The belief and sincerity of the Muslims won them God’s help. The Quraysh, who had exulted in their power, suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of the ill-equipped Muslims. Seventy of the Quraysh were killed. The two young brothers, ‘Awf and Mu‘awwidh, from the Helpers, together with ‘Adbullah ibn Mas‘ud, killed Abu Jahl, who had been described by God’s Messenger as the Pharaoh of the Muslim Ummah.11 Almost all the leaders of the Quraysh, including Abu Jahl, Walid ibn Mughira, ‘Utba ibn Rabi‘ah, ‘As ibn Sa‘id, Umayyah ibn Khalaf, and Nawfal ibn Khuwaylid were killed. Prior to the battle, God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, had indicated the spots where they were killed, saying: ‘Utba will be killed here; Abu Jahl here, Umayyah ibn Khalaf here, and so on.12

Another seventy of the Quraysh were taken as war prisoners. God granted the Muslims permission to accept ransom for them. God’s Messenger released some of them in return for ransom, and the others who knew how to read and write, on the condition that they should teach the unlettered Muslims how to read and write.

Such treatment of the captives proved very beneficial for the Muslims. For those people who had expected execution welcomed the chance to pay ransom and paid it. Second, the rate of literacy in Madina was very low, and, in order to propagate Islam, the Muslims had to know how to read and write. Besides, the Muslims had to be culturally superior to the polytheists. Third, those who were kept in Madina to teach the Muslims how to read and write would be able to learn Islam better than before and find the opportunity to be in close contact with the Muslims. This was certain to soften their hearts toward Islam and accelerate their conversion, together with that of their families. Fourth, the families and relatives of those captives had despaired of their lives. But, when they saw them before them unexpectedly, their enmity to Islam was considerably lessened or broken.

The decisive victory gained at Badr made Islam a force to reckon with across all of Arabia, and many hardened hearts were inclined to accept the message of Islam.

1. I. Sa'd, 3.162.
2. Muslim, ''Kitab al-Jihad wa l-Siyar,'' 30; Waqidi, Maghazi, 1.48-9.
3. Tabari, Tarikh al-Umam wa l-Muluk, 2.430.
4. I. Hanbal, 1.411, 418.
5. I. Sa'd, 3.120.
6. I. Hanbal, 1.159.
7. I. Hisham, 2.127.
8. I. Hisham, 1.621.
9. I. Hisham, 1.668; I. Hanbal, 1.368.
10. I. Hisham, 2.277.
11. I. Hisham, 2.280-7; I. Kathir, 3.350.
12. Abu Dawud, 2.53; Muslim, 5.170.

Prophet Muhammad Peace & Blessings upon him treatment of the prisoners of war taken in the battle of Badr

A handful of believers were subjected to the most brutal of tortures in Makka. They bore all of them patiently and never thought of retaliation, as the Qur’an ordered God’s Messenger to call unbelievers to the way of God with wisdom and fair preaching and advised him to repel the evil with what was better, and overlook their faults and evils with magnanimous forgiveness. When the Muslims emigrated to Madina, having left most of their belongings in Makka in order to be able to live according to their beliefs, the harassment of the Makkan polytheists did not stop. Indeed, they also became the target of Jewish conspiracy in Madina. Also, since the Helpers, the native believers of Madina, had to share, although willingly, everything they had with their emigrant brothers, all the Muslims suffered deprivations. In such straitened circumstances, God Almighty permitted them to resist the enemy onslaught because they were wronged. This was just before the Battle of Badr.

The Battle of Badr was the first confrontation of the Muslims with the enemy forces. Although outnumbered, the believers won a great victory. Until then, if, indeed, we do not accept the opinions of some interpreters of the Qur’an that sura Muhammad, which contains regulations as to how to treat prisoners of war, was revealed before sura al-Anfal, no Divine commandment had been revealed as to how the captives should be treated. They did not even know whether they would kill the enemy on the battlefield or take them as prisoners. Sa’d ibn Muadh, for example, was not pleased when he saw his brothers (in-religion) taking enemy soldiers as prisoners of war; he was in favor of killing them in the first confrontation.

The battle ended and the Prophet, upon him be peace and blessings, chose, as he always did where there was no specific Divine commandment, to consult with his Companions about how they should treat the prisoners of war. Abu Bakr said:

O God’s Messenger! They are your people. Even though they did you and the believers great wrong, you will win their hearts and cause their guidance if you forgive them and please them.

However, ‘Umar gave this opinion:

O God’s Messenger! The prisoners of war are the leading figures of Makka. If we kill them, unbelief will no longer be able to recover to encounter us. So, hand over to each of the Muslims his kin among them. Hand over to ‘Ali his brother ‘Aqil to kill. Let Abu Bakr kill his son, ‘Abd al-Rahman, and let me kill my relative so and so.

God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, turned to Abu Bakr and said:

You are, O Abu Bakr, like the Prophet Abraham, upon him be peace, who said: ‘He who follows me is of me, and he who disobeys me - but You are indeed Oft-Forgiving, Most Compassionate’ (Abraham, 14.36). You are also like Jesus, who said: ‘If You punish them, they are Your servants. If You forgive them, You are the All-Mighty, the All-Wise’ (al-Ma’ida, 5.118).

Then he turned to ‘Umar and said:

O ‘Umar! You are like Noah, who said: ‘O my Lord! Leave not even a single unbeliever on earth!’ (Nuh, 71.26). You are also like Moses, who said: ‘Our Lord, destroy their (Pharaoh’s and his chiefs’) riches and harden their hearts so that they will not believe until they see the painful chastisement’ (Yunus, 10. 88). Then, he acted according to the view of Abu Bakr.19

Every Prophet was sent to guide people to the way of God, and the mission of each was undoubtedly based on mercy. However, mercy sometimes requires that, as in the case of Noah and Moses, upon them both be peace, an arm should be amputated for the health of the body, or even that the body should undergo a major operation. Islam, being the ‘middle way’ of absolute balance - balance between materialism and spiritualism, between rationalism and mysticism, between worldliness and excessive asceticism, between this world and the next - and inclusive of the ways of all the previous Prophets, makes a choice according to the situation. Prior to the Battle of Badr, the Muslims were weak, and unbelief was, in material terms, strong, formidable and organized. For this reason, conditions may have required that the Prophet should not have had prisoners of war until he became completely triumphant in the land (al-Anfal, 8.67). For they were fighting for the cause of God, not some worldly purposes, like collecting ransom. However, God Almighty had already decreed before that ransom and spoils of war would be lawful for Muslims. The pure hearts of the Prophet, upon him be peace, and Abu Bakr must have felt before that God would make spoils of war and taking ransom lawful for the Muslims and, before waiting for the Revelation, chose to release the prisoners of war in return for some ransom. However, had it not been for that decree, a severe penalty would have reached them for the ransom that they took. If, then, God made it lawful, they could enjoy what they took in war, lawful and good (al-Anfal, 8:67-69).

The same is mentioned more explicitly in another verse:

When you confront the unbelievers (in battle), smite their necks, and when you have thoroughly subdued them, bind a bond firmly on them. Thereafter (is the time for) either generosity (i.e. the release of prisoners without ransom) or ransom (recommended). (Muhammad, 47.4)

A GENERAL EVALUATION OF THE MILITARY ACHIEVEMENTS OF ALLAH'S MOST BELOVED MESSENGER
salla Allahu ta'ala 'alayhi wa 'aalihi wa Sallam

One of the significant points to be noted concerning the personality of God’s Messenger is that he was the most eminent commander in human history. In order to understand this dimension of his sacred mission, it is worthwhile to make a general evaluation of his military triumphs:

▪ There is not another Prophet who carried his mission to decisive victory in all aspects of life. When the Prophet Moses, upon him be peace, who resembles God’s Messenger more than the other Prophets in many aspects of his mission, died, his people were still in the desert, not yet able to conquer ‘Palestine’ after several decades of his preaching. Jesus’ mission was mainly aimed at infusing a spiritual and moral revival into the life of the Jews who had drowned in the bog of materialism. After his elevation to heaven, his disciples succeeded in conveying his Message as far as the center of the Roman Empire despite severe persecutions but, unfortunately, at the cost of the degeneration or corruption of his original creed.

▪ When the Prophet Muhammad, upon him be peace and blessings, said farewell to the world, he left behind the whole of Arabia converted to Islam, and an ‘army’ of dedicated Companions, who were ready to convey his Message as far as the remotest corners of the world. He achieved this end with a handful of self-sacrificing men, who had neither heard of belief or Scripture before, nor been acquainted with anything concerning a civilized social life and world politics or good morals and self-discipline. He made a handful of desert men engaged in civil wars, unending feuds, into an ‘army’ of holy warriors who, equipped with belief, sincerity, knowledge, good morals, love of humanity and compassion, and imbued with activism, dedicated themselves to a Divine Cause to, in the words of Rabi‘ ibn Amir, the Muslim envoy to the Iranian commander during the Qadisiyyah War, ‘elevate men from the dark pits of worldly life to the high, boundless realm of the spirit, from the humiliation of worshipping false and man-made divinities to the honor and dignity of worshipping One God, the only Creator and Sustainer of the universe, and to free them from the oppression and depression brought about by false religions and man-made systems to the luminous and peaceful climate of Islam.’

▪ The aim of God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, was never to build a worldly kingdom; he was sent to guide humanity to salvation in both worlds, physical and spiritual; he aimed at reviving people, not killing them. It is to this end that he was obliged to arrange military expeditions and sometimes to command armies. He sent out many expeditions and himself commanded forces 28 times. Fighting took place in almost half of all the military campaigns he organized during his mission, which number about 1, and only around 1,000 people lost their lives in all on both sides. Around 250 Muslims were martyred and 750 non-Muslims were killed. This means that God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, established his Message and brought absolute security to the whole of the Arabian peninsula for the first time in its history, and opened the way to global security, at the cost of only 1,000 lives. This is, as so many of his achievements are, unequalled in world history.

▪ God’s Messenger established a system of rules governing international relations among sovereign states. In other words, he was the first to legislate an international law. Although the concept was not unknown before Islam, international law was very limited - for example, there were no recognized rules for the treatment of prisoners of war. Again, God’s Messenger, upon him be peace, established a set of rules to bring a ‘discipline’ to fighting. For example, the following is the order given by him and his true successors to come until the present day to armies dispatched for fighting, an order which had been strictly obeyed by Muslims in their wars as Muslims:

Always keep fear of God in your mind. Remember that you cannot afford to do anything without His grace. Do not forget that Islam is a mission of peace and love. Do not destroy fruit-trees nor fertile fields in your paths. Be just, and spare the feelings of the vanquished. Respect all religious persons who live in hermitages or convents and spare their edifices. Do not kill civilians. Do not outrage the chastity of women and the honor of the conquered. Do not harm old people and children. Do not accept any gifts from the civil population of any place. Do not billet your soldiers or officers in the houses of civilians.80

▪ God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, never neglected to take preliminary precautions, and he left nothing to chance. He always acted with the utmost care, insight and forethought and therefore never met with any setbacks. He did not have the slightest part in the reverse suffered at Uhud. Also, he was extraordinarily successful in getting information from the enemy, without ever resorting to force or torture. Once an enemy soldier was captured by the vanguard of the Muslim army, who tried to force him to give information about the enemy’s numbers and equipment. God’s Messenger ordered his release and asked him how many camels the approaching army slaughtered every day to eat. Calculating how many camels are eaten by how many people in a day, he tried to work out the numbers of the enemy army.2

▪ God’s Messenger founded a military intelligence service and succeeded in getting all the necessary information about the enemy, but he never allowed any news about his movements to leak out to the opposite side. Before setting out to conquer Makka, Khatib ibn Abi Balta‘a secretly sent a letter with a woman to his relatives in Makka about the preparations of God’s Messenger. However, the Prophet was informed of this, and sent ‘Ali and Zubayr to catch up with the woman and intercept the letter, which they did.

▪ Also, God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, kept secret his military preparations and did not reveal to his Companions where he would march. He tended to take a different direction from that of his real destination and only after some while did he turn to his target. He made much use of tactics securing victory such as speed, surprise attack and flexibility of movement. In most of his campaigns, major or minor, he caught the enemy unprepared and overcame them relatively easily. For example, in the Battle of Khaybar, the Jews got news of his coming upon them only through their farmers going to their fields and so had time only to shelter in their citadels. In the same way, the Quraysh were left nothing to do other than surrender during the conquest of Makka.

▪ Being a Prophet who brought a universal religion from God, God’s Messenger educated his Companions in the aims of that religion so effectively that they were ever ready to sacrifice themselves in the way of God. This was one of the main factors lying behind the victories of God’s Messenger. His Companions placed utmost reliance on and had perfect confidence in him. Therefore, he inculcated fear in the hearts of his enemies, as he himself said: I am supported by God through implanting fear in the hearts of my enemies from a distance of a month’s walk.3 Besides, in order to demoralize his enemies he resorted to psychology. Poets like Hassan ibn Thabit and ‘Adbullah ibn Rawaha wrote or recited verses to demoralize the enemy. In the minor pilgrimage they performed one year after the treaty of Hudaybiya, he ordered his Companions to run around the Ka’ba so as to demonstrate their strength to the Makkans watching them from the neighboring hills. While running, ‘Adbullah ibn Rawaha recited:

I start with the name of God,
Apart from Whom there is no other god,
And Muhammad is the Messenger of God.
O unbelievers, and sons of unbelievers, clear out of his way.

The Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, was pleased with his recitation, commenting: His words are more penetrating to the Quraysh than arrows.4

▪ God’s Messenger was unequalled in introducing new strategies and disuniting the allied enemy tribes. During the Battle of the Trench, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza broke their treaty with the Muslims at a most critical moment of the battle and joined the Quraysh, besieging Madina. Left between two hostile camps, God’s Messenger offered a peace treaty to Banu Ghatafan, who were in alliance with the Quraysh in the war. This discouraged Banu Ghatafan from continuing the war. He also succeeded, with a skilful maneuver, in bringing about a disagreement and mutual mistrust between the Quraysh and Banu Qurayza. Also, during the campaign of Khaybar, he first gave the impression that he was marching upon Banu Ghatafan, who were than allied with the Jews of Khaybar. This caused Banu Ghatafan to remain inactive during the campaign, unable to help the Jews.

▪ God’s Messenger did what he had to do at each step of his life, and never showed any hesitation or irresolution in executing his plans or intentions. Also, he never retreated during any fighting, nor did he faint and lose heart. He stood steadfast, without moving an inch backward, during the critical moments of both the Battle of Uhud and Hunayn. He called to those of his Companions scattering from around him; Do not scatter! I am Muhammad, the Messenger of God. That is no lie!

All the Jewish tribes in and around Madina broke their agreements with God’s Messenger one after the other. When they did not heed his call to them to remain faithful to their agreement, God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, showed no hesitation in marching upon them - as against the Banu Qurayza after the Battle of the Trench, without taking off his coat of mail; or against the Quraysh army one day after the set-back at the Battle of Uhud - such incidents are very significant in showing his resolution and invincibility.

▪ Almost in all of his campaigns, major or minor, God’s Messenger always kept in hand the initiative to attack and direct the war. Even in set battles, like those of Badr, Uhud and the Trench, in which he was made the target of the attack, he did not lose the initiative and, by surprise strategies and effective tactics, he was able to defeat the enemy. He also succeeded in using time and any opportunities that arose in his favor.

▪ God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, usually changed the tactics and strategies he used in battles. For example, in the Battle of Badr, he made an over-all attack upon the enemy after demoralizing them in single combats. In the first stage of the Battle of Uhud, he kept the enemy cavalry inactive through the archers he stationed in the mountain-pass of Aynayn and, hurling his eminent warriors such as Hamza, ‘Ali, Abu Dujana and Zubayr, upon the enemy, he won the victory. As for the Battle of Trench, he faced the enemy with a long, deep trench they dug round Madina and, remaining within the confines of the city, forced the enemy to retreat after four weeks of siege.

▪ The Messenger was never short of necessary reinforcement and always kept his lines of communication active. Equally, he never suffered from insufficient logistics.

▪ God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, brought up, along with statesmen of extraordinary capability such as Abu Bakr and ‘Umar and men of profound scholarship and spirituality, great soldiers and invincible commanders. His education was based on three basic elements:

▪ Continuous bodily training. He usually urged his Companions to train themselves in archery, wrestling, swimming and riding horses. He sometimes arranged competitions and even running races, in which he himself occasionally participated. Also, he attached great importance to preserving one’s health and maintaining strength.

▪ Good morals and being well-mannered.

▪ Devotion to God with unshakable belief, submission and reliance, and obedience to God, to himself and others in authority.

The Muslim army conveyed peace and security to the lands it conquered. Each soldier of that army was absolutely dedicated to the cause of Islam. The only criterion for them to judge between people was belief in God. They did not feel true love for anybody who opposed God and His Messenger, even if they were their fathers, children or brothers (See, al-Mujadila, 58.22). Because of this, it sometimes happened that children and fathers or brothers met in opposing armies on the battlefield.

Belief and submission made the Muslim soldiers so powerful and fearless that neither the strength of enemy forces outnumbering them nor fear of death could prevent them from conveying the Divine Message. ‘Adbullah ibn Hudafa al-Sahmi was captured in a war against the Byzantines. A priest in the Byzantine army offered him Christianity so that his life could be spared, and gave him three minutes of respite. ‘Adbullah responded to him:

Thank you, father! You have given me three minutes to communicate to you my religion.

1. Andrew Miller, Church History, 285; Bukhari, “Manaqib,” 9.
2. I. Hisham, 2.269.
3. Bukhari, “Tayammum,” 1, “Salat,” 56.
4. Nasa’i, Sunan, 5.212; I. Hisham, 4.13; I. Sa‘d, 2.121.

The Prophet Muhammad, upon him be peace and endless blessings, had all the qualities a leader is supposed to have. He was a leader not only in one aspect of life but he led his community to success in every field. There is none in human history comparable to him as commander, statesman, religious leader, spiritual guide, etc. In order to know him as a leader more closely, we had better summarize the qualities a leader should have in general terms:

▪ A leader should be realistic; his messages and demands should not be in contradiction with the realities of life. He should consider the conditions surrounding him and his community as they actually are. He should be aware of the advantages and disadvantages he has.

▪ A leader should be convinced of the truth of the message he conveys to people. He should never falter in his convictions and be resolute in conveying his message without renunciation.

▪ A leader should be courageous in nature. Even left alone to himself, he should find in himself as much courage as to resist all the difficulties he might encounter.

The Prophet Muhammad, upon him be peace, was the most courageous of people. When some of his pursuers reached the mouth of the cave where he was in hiding, Abu Bakr was afraid that something would happen to the Messenger. However, the Prophet, upon him be peace & countless blessings, comforted him, saying: Grieve not, for God is with us.29

▪ A leader should have a strong will-power and resolve and never fall into hopelessness.

▪ A leader should be aware of his responsibility and nothing should be able to prevent him from fulfilling it. Especially the charms of the world and attractions of life should not be able to intervene between him and his responsibility.

▪ A leader should be far-sighted and have determined his goal well. He should have the mental capacity to discern the developments he might encounter in the future. He should also be able to evaluate the past, the present and the future together and reach new syntheses. A leader who frequently changes opinions causes rifts and disagreements among his community.

▪ A leader should know the members of his community individually. He should have discovered each of them with their dispositions, character, abilities, shortcomings, ambitions and weak points. This will enable him particularly to make the best choice in his appointments to important offices.

▪ A leader should have a strong character and be equipped with praiseworthy virtues. He should be determined in carrying out his decisions but capable of flexibility; he should know when to be unyielding and implacable; when to be relenting and compassionate. He should be earnest and dignified but also modest. He should be upright, truthful, trustworthy, and just.

▪ A leader should not cherish worldly ambitions and abuse his authority. He should live like one who is the poorest of his community and never discriminate among his subjects. He should love all of them, prefer them over himself and be able to make himself loved by them sincerely. He should be faithful to his community and be able to secure their loyalty and devotion.

Considered from the viewpoint of all these and many other qualities a leader should have, God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, will be seen to be the greatest leader history has ever known. To cite only a few examples, even when the conditions were most unfavorable, he never conceived of giving up conveying his Message nor yielded to the desires of his opponents to make concessions. Instead, he used to say to them: Say, ‘There is no god but God’, and prosper in both worlds.30 When his Companions complained to him about the harsh conditions afflicting them in Makka and the persecutions they suffered, he answered:You show haste. One day will come and a woman will travel from Hira [a town in southern Iraq] to Makka alone on her camel (in security) and turn round Ka’ba as an act of worship, and the treasuries of the Sassanid Emperor will be captured by my community.31

Once the polytheist leaders of Makka came to him and said: ‘If you assign us a day when others, especially those poor ones, will not be present, we may talk to you about accepting your religion.’ They despised the poor Muslims like Bilal, ‘Ammar and Habbab, and desired special treatment. God‘s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, never accepted such proposals, nor did he ever think of accepting them. The verses revealed addressed him as follows:

Send not away those who call on their Lord morning and evening, seeking His ‘Face’. (al-An‘am, 6.52)

Persevere together with those who call on their Lord morning and evening, seeking His ‘Face’. (al-Kahf, 18.28)

29. Bukhari, Fada’il al-Ashab, 2 ; Ibn Hanbal, 1 :4
30. Bukhari, “Tafsir,” 1; Muslim, “Iman,” 355.
31. Bukhari, “Manaqib, ” 25.

THE STAGES OF JIHAD & ITS MAIN PRINCIPLES

The first Revelation to God’s Messenger was the com­mand: Read! This command, coming at a time when there was nothing readily available to read, meant that believers should use their intellectual and spiritual facul­ties to discern God’s acts in the universe and His laws related to its creation and operation. Through such discernment, believers seek to purify themselves and their minds of all ignorance-based superstitions and to acquire true knowledge through observation and contemplation.

Human beings are not composed only of their minds. God has endowed us with many faculties, each of which needs satisfaction. So while fe­eding our minds with the Divine “signs” in the universe, we seek to cleanse our hearts of sin. We live a balanced life in awareness of Divine supervision, and conti­nuously seek His forgiveness. In this way, we eventually conquer our desire for forbidden things and, thro­ugh prayer, ask God to enable us to do good deeds.

Thus, read! signifies action. For God’s Messenger, who already was absolutely pure in spirit and devoid of superstition, it meant that it was time to start his mission as a Messenger of God. He was to recite the Revelation in public and instruct people about His signs. By doing this, he would purify their minds of supers­titions carried over from the Age of Ignorance, and their hearts of sin. He wo­uld enlighten them, intellectually and spiritually, by instructing them in the “Revealed Book of God” (the Quran) and His “Created Book” (the universe): 

We have sent among you, of yourselves, a Messenger who recites Our signs to you, purifies you, and instructs you in the Book and in the Wisdom, and also instructs you in what you don’t know (2:151).

After he received this first revelation, God’s Messenger returned home in great agitation. He was sleeping wrapped in a cloak, “enwrapped” by his people’s suffering and this heavy responsibility, when God commanded him: 

O enwrapped one, keep vigil the night long, save a little (a half of it, or diminish or add a little), and chant the Qur’an in me­asure, for We shall charge you with a weighty word (73:1-5).

The short period between the first revelation and the spreading of the Message, a period marked by such verses as those mentioned above, was a preliminary stage for God’s Messenger. He had to prepare himself to convey the Qur’an by keeping long night vigils and reciting the Quran in measure. As is known, night vigils are times when impression is more keen and recitation more penetrating.

In addition to conveying the Message, jihad, as discussed above, entails the believers’ struggles with their carnal selves to build a genuine spiritual character, one overflowing with belief and inflamed with love. These two dimensions of jihad continue until the believer dies (the individual sphere) and until the Last Day (the collective sphere). Therefore, soon after this verse was revealed, God’s Messenger received the following revelation:

O enshrouded one, arise and warn! Magnify your Lord, purify your ro­bes, and flee defilement! Do not show favor, seeking worldly gain! For the sake of your Lord, be patient! (74:1-7).

These revelations ordered the Prophet to begin preaching Islam. He started with his family members and nearest relati­ves and, after Warn your tribe of ne­arest kindred (26:214) was revealed, spread this call throughout his tribe. His subsequent public preaching was met with derision, threats, torture, enticing bribes if he would stop, and boycott.

In Makka, God’s Messenger never resorted to or allowed retaliation. Islam came not to spread trouble or cause dissention, but, in the words of Amir ibn Rabi‘, to bring people out of the darkness of unbelief into the light of belief, to free them from serving that which is not God so that they can serve the One True God, and to elevate them from the pits of the Earth to the heights of Heaven.1

As Islam literally means peace, salvation, and submission, it obviously came to establish peace. This is established first in our inner worlds, so that we are at peace with God and natural environment, and then throughout the world and the universe. Peace and order are fundamental in Islam, for it seeks to spread in a peaceful personal and collective atmosphere. It refrains from resorting to force as much as possible, never approves of injustice, and forbids bloodshed:

Whoever kills someone, other than in retaliation for murder or corruption on the Earth, in effect has killed humanity; whoever saves a life in effect has saved humanity(5:32).

Coming to eradicate injustice and corruption, and to “unite” the Earth with the Heavens in peace and harmony, Islam calls people with wisdom and fair exhortation. It does not resort to force until the defenders of their corrupt order rooted in injustice, oppression, self-interest, exploitation, and usurpation of others’ rights seek to prevent its preaching in peaceful ways and suppress it. Thus, force is allowed in the following cases:

• If unbelievers, polytheists, or those who cause trouble and corruption actively resist the preaching of Islam and prevent others from listening to its message. As Islam is a Divine religion seeking to secure human well-being and happiness in both worlds, it has the right to present itself. If this is not allowed, theoretically, its opponents are given three alternatives: accept Islam, allow its preaching in peaceful ways, or admit its rule. If they reject these alternatives, force is allowed.

However, with respect to using force there is an important point to mention. In order to use force, there must be an Islamic state. It was allowed only after the Prophet emigrated to Madina and established an independent state, for the Muslims had been wronged (22:39). The verses revealed to give this permission explain the Islamic view of just war:

(Fighting is) permitted to those who are fought against, because they have been wronged. God is able to give them victory. Those who have been driven from their homes unjustly only because they said: “Our Lord is God.” For had it not been for God’s repelling some people by means of others, cloisters and churches and synagogues and mo­sques, wherein the Name of God is much mentioned, would have been pulled down. God helps one who helps Him [His religion]. God is All-Strong, All-Mighty. Those who, if We give them power in the land, establish worship and pay zakat and enjoin the good and forbid the evil. And God’s is the sequel of events. (22:39-41)

It is clear from these verses, and from his­tory, that Islam resorts to force only to defend itself and establish freedom of belief. Under Muslim rule, Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, Hindus, and adherents of other religions are free to prac­tice their religion. Even many Western historians and writers have agreed that Christians and Jews experienced the most prosperous and happiest period of their history under Muslim rule.

• Islam, being the true religion revealed by God, never approves of injus­tice. As declared in Surely We have written (decreed) in the Psalms after the Torah (and remind once more in the Qur’an) that My righteous servants will inherit the earth. (21:105), God’s righteous servants must submit the Earth to God’s rule, which depends on absolute justice and worship of the One God. They also are obliged to strive until persecution, as well as any worship of and obedience to false deities and unjust tyrants, is ended. Thus Muslims are to fight for the feeble and oppressed: How should you not fight for the cause of God and of the feeble and oppressed men and women and children, who cry: “Our Lord! Bring us out of this town whose people are oppressors! Give us from Your presence some protecting friend! Give us from Your presence some defender!” (4:75).

As believers cannot transgress God’s limits, they must observe His rules related to fighting. Some are deduced directly from the Qur'an and the Sunna (practice of Prophet Muhammad) and are as follows:

A believer is one from whom God has bought his or her life and wealth in exchange for Paradise (9:111). They are dedicated solely to His cause and seek only His good pleasure. Therefore, whoever fights for other causes (e.g., fame, wealth, racial or ideological considerations) is excluded from God’s good pleasure.

Fight in the way of God against those who fight you, but do not transgress. God does not love transgressors (2:190).

Believers are told not to fight neutral parties, and to reject unscrupulous methods or indiscriminate killing and pillage, which characterize all wars waged by non-Muslims. The excesses alluded to consist of, but are not limited to, fighting women and children, the old and the injured, mutilating enemy corpses, destroying fields and livestock, and other acts of injustice and brutality. Force is to be used by Muslims only when unavoidable, and only to the extent absolutely necessary.

When fighting cannot be avoided, the Quran tells believers not to avoid it. Rather, they must prepare themselves, both morally and spiritually, and take precautions. These are:

Strive for that spiritual stage when 20 Muslims can overcome 200 of the enemy: O Prophet! Exhort the believers to fight. Twenty steadfast men shall overcome 200; 100 hundred steadfast men shall overcome 1,000 unbelievers, because unbelievers have no understanding or sound judgment (8:65), and when those who will meet their Lord exclaim: How often a small company has overcome a mighty host by God’s leave! God is with the steadfast (2:249).

To attain such a rank, Muslims must have an unshakable belief and trust in God and avoid all sins as much as possible. Belief and piety or righteousness are two unbreakable weapons, two sources of inexhaustible power: Don’t faint or grieve, for you shall gain the upper hand if you are true believers (3:139), and The sequel is for the righteous people (7:128).

In addition to moral strength, believers must equip themselves with the latest weaponry. Force is vital to obtaining the desired re­sult, so believers cannot ignore it. Rather, they must be further advanced in science and technology than unbelievers so that the latter cannot use their superiority for their own selfish benefit. As Islam states that “right is might,” believers must be able to prevent unbelievers and oppressors from showing that “might makes right”:Make ready for them all you can of armed force and tet­hered horses, that thereby you may dismay the enemy of God and your enemy, and others beside them whom you don’t know; God knows them. Whatever you spend in the way of God will be repaid to you in full, and you will not be wronged (8:60).

An Islamic state should be powerful enough to deter the attacks of unbelievers and oppressors, as well as their plans to subject weaker people. It should be able to secure peace and justice, and to prevent any other power from causing trouble or corruption. This will be possible when Muslims equip themselves with strong belief and righ­teousness, and with scientific knowledge and the latest technology. They must combine science and techno­logy with faith and good morals, and then use this force for the good of humanity. Belief in God calls for serving people. Greater belief means a greater concern for the created’s welfare. When Muslims attain this rank, God will not allow unbelievers to defeat believers (4:141). Otherwise, what the Prophet predicted will happen: “(The forces of unbelief) will unite to make a concerted attack upon you. They will snatch the morsel out of your mouths and pillage your table.”2

When fighting is necessary, Muslims must report for duty, for:

O you who believe! What ails you that when you are told: “Go forth in the way of God,” you sink down heavily to the ground? Are you so content with the life of the world, rather than the world to come? Yet the enjoyment of the life of the world, compared with the world to come, is a little thing. If you don’t go forth, He will afflict you with a pain­ful doom. He will replace you with another people; and you will not hurt Him. God is powerful over everything.(9:38-39)

God loves those who battle for His cause in ranks, as if they were a solid structure. (61:4)

O you who believe! Shall I show you something that will save you from a painful doom? You should believe in God and His Messenger, and strive for the cause of God with your wealth and your lives. That is better for you, if you only knew. He will forgive your sins and admit you into Gardens underneath which rivers flow, and to dwelling places goodly in Gardens of Eden. That is the mighty triumph; and other things you love, help from God, and a nigh victory. Give good tidings to believers. (61:10-3)

A community is structured and functions like a body, for it demands a “head” having “intellect.” Therefore, obedience to the head is vital for communal prosperity. When God’s Messenger was ra­ised in Arabia, people resembled a broken rosary’s scattered beads and were unaware of the need for obedience and the benefits of collective life. God’s Messenger inculcated in them the feeling of obedience to God, His Messenger, and their superiors, and used Islam as an unbreakable rope to unite them:

O you who believe! Obey God, the Messenger, and those of you who are in authority. If you have a dispute concerning anything, refer it to God and the Messenger if you believe in God and the Last Day. That is better and more seemly in the end. (4:59)

O you who believe! When you meet an army, hold firm and remem­ber and mention God much, so that you may be successful. Obey God and His Messenger, and don’t dispute with each other lest you falter and your strength departs ??). Be steadfast, and God is with the stead­fast. (8:45-6)

The Companions’ resulting consciousness of obedience made many previously impossible things possible. For example, when he appointed the 18-year-old son of his emancipated (black) slave as commander of an army containing many elders, among them Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Uthman, no Companion objected.3 In another case, during a military expedition the commander ordered his soldiers to throw themselves into a fire. Even though this was not an Islamic order, some tried to obey it. However, others prevented them from committing suicide and persuaded them to ask God’s Messenger whether they had to obey such un-Islamic orders.4 Although it is unlawful to obey sinful orders, obedience to law is vitally important to a com­munity's collective life, particularly if it wants to win a war.

Believers must remain steadfast and are forbidden to flee the battlefield: O you who believe! When you meet unbelievers in battle, don’t turn your backs to them. Whoever does so on that day, unless maneuvering for battle or intending to join a company, has incurred God’s wrath, and his habitation will be Hell-an evil homecoming! (8:15-16)

Fleeing the battlefield is one of the seven major sins, for it causes disorder in the ranks and demoralizes the others. Their belief in God and the Hereafter cannot be firm, for their actions show they prefer this life to the Hereafter. Believers may leave the battlefield only to man­euver, as a tactic, or to join another company.

In the Battle of Yarmuk (636 CE), 20,000 valiant Muslims fought-and defeated-200,000 Byzantines.5 Qabbas ibn Ashyam, one of the heroes, only realized that he had lost a leg (around noon) when he dismounted from his horse hours later. His grandson later introduced himself to Caliph ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, saying: “O Caliph, I am the grandson of the one who lost his leg at noon but became aware of it only toward evening.”

During the Battle of Mu’ta (629 CE), the Muslim army consisted of 3,000 soldiers; the opposing Byzantine forces had about 100,000 soldiers. The Muslims fought heroically, and both armies retreated at the same time. Despite this, the Muslims thought that they had fled the battlefield and so were ashamed to meet God’s Messenger. However, he welcomed and consoled them: “You didn’t flee; you retreated to join me. You will collect strength and fight with them again.”6 It happened just as he said, for just before his death the Muslim army raided southern Syria; 2 years later, the Muslims dealt the Byzantines a deadly blow at Yarmuk.